2007-03-12
reading 超现实主义的理论背景(推荐)
The Theoretical Backgrounds of Surrealism
Charles E. Gauss
The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. 2, No. 8. (Autumn, 1943), pp. 37-44.
among us for twenty years. As the exploration of a particular point
of view which is in revolt against the accepted traditional standards
of art and criticism, surrealist art has faced the general snobbism of
aesthetician and critic. Yet, because it is a phenomenon whose rise and i r n a
portance in inter-war culture is both interesting and astonishing, this new
movement demands sympathetic study. Though Surrealism, being of such
a vexing and anti-rationalistic nature, seems recalcitrant to analysis, its proponents
have issued numerous manifestoes and theoretical expositions of its
point of view which the aesthetician would do well to regard more closely
than he has heretofore. The study of these would reveal the complex of
intellectual antecedents which the surrealist has drawn together in his point
of view thereby giving the critic a better perspective of judgment, and would
also place before the aesthetician certain questions on the nature of his
science which he should candidly face if his science is to be of any value.
It is with these ends in view that I intend to inspect briefly the scriptural texts
of the two leading surrealists, Andre Breton and Salvator Dali, to extract
the fundamental propositions of their theory.
The fundamental turn of thought distinctive of Surrealism is first described
by Andre Breton in his Manifeste du Surre'alisme of 1924. Here he
contrasts the "realist attitude" and the "materialist attitude." By the first
he means an absolute rationalism which has the fixed limits of discursive reason,
is always in agreement with comrnon sense, and hence confines itself to the
tautological possibilities of traditional logic. It is inspired by the tradition
of Positivism from St. Thomas to Anatole
to flights of the imagination.' Its error is that "under color of civilization,
under pretext of progress, all that rightly or wrongly may be regarded as
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
1.Cf. A. Breton, Manjfeste dir Srrwi~l!smep, p. 15-16.
fantasy or superstitution has been banished from the mind, all uncustomary
searching after truth has been pros~ribed."~ Contrasted with this is the
materialist attitude, ruled by the true logic which attempts to burst out of
"immediate utility" and to realize unrestricted ends. Its pathway for the
discovery of truth is that of the imagination, The domain of the imagination
is identified with the psychic life itself as distinguished from the reality of
ordinary appearance which is the raw material for the action of our rationalization.
The analysis of Freud is recognized as a great step in the opening
up of this vaster field and his contention that "the depths of our minds
harbor strange forces capable of increasing those on the surface, or of successfully
contending with themv3 is accepted by the surrealists. The world of the
imagination is identified with the subconsciousness and is most easily apprehended
in the dream stage. Since the stage itself "is continuous and
carries traces of organization" and the waking state is only "a phenomenon
of interference" obeying the suggestions which come to it from our unconscious
depths,' a methodological examination of the first should yield the
explanation for both. Thus we are brought to the central thesis of Surrealism
which M. Breton expresses: "I believe in the future transmutation of those
two seemingly contradictory states, dream and reality, into a sort of absolute
reality, or surreality, so to peak."^ The logic of Surrealism is the logic of
Hegelianism; the two contradictory states are synthesized into a new conception
which contains them both. The mental world of veridical data and the
world of the imagination, of dreams and illusions, are both absorbed by a
deeper mental realm named the surreal. Such is the philosophical position of
Surrealism. The things of the outer world, though real in the sense that
they have their own independent existence, lose this reality in our thoughts
and enter into new relationships which are psychical, not physical. To the
surrealist "a tomato is also a child's balloon" and in this relationship the
word "like" is "suppressed."' Certainly by such a program our suspicions
of the world of the marvelous and the strange are put in disrepute, and the
world known by common sense and reason is "surclassC."
Having found a point of reference between the conscious and the un-
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
2 Ibid., p. 21 ; translation by David Gascoyne in wha is Surrealism? (Criterion
Miscellany No. 4 3 ) ,
Ibid., p. 22, tr. CM.
Ibid., pp. 24, 25 and 26.
Ibid., p. 27; tr. CM.
A. Breton, "Exhibition X ...... Y ..... ," CM, p. 25.
conscious which defines the nature of their relationship to each other, Surrealism
is next faced with the problem of how one reaches the surreal, how
does he discover it. It is the problem of knowledge applied to a special
iontext. Surrealism as a philosophical position now gives way to Surrealism
as an activity. The important thing is to get rid of any semblance of rational
control over our activity, for how can we get to the surreal which is beyond
the rational if we cannot free ourselves from the rational? Breton describes
the first method of activity freed from rational control, that of psychic autorndtim.
This is the attempt to record the s~rearno f uninhibited verbal imagery
for oneself as a psychoanalyst would that of a patient. One places himself
in as passive a state as possible and writes down rapidly his irrational flow
of thought. The method is easily transferred to a form of drawing, where
it becomes "doodling." The chance pasting of collage pieces or the fortuitous
creation of a surrealist object or of an exquisite corpse are simply extensions
of this method. The place of the artist as an impartial investigator of the
surreal is thus assured in Surrealism. Truth and reality are open not alone
to the scientist and the experimenter. The Romantic notion of the artist as
seer is continued by these latter-day Romantics but with a strange and ironic
twist. Since the surrealist point of view and surrealist activity are possible
in all fields, paintings, poetry, and experiment merge and the essential differences
between the various arts ceases to be of any consequence. Surrealist
works are not important as poems, as pictures, as objects, but as being the
residue left when we have stript down our souls to the bare framework of
the unconscious which is beneath all our selves and from which we never
escape.
The problem of expression, as M. Breton says in his second manifesto
of 1930, is the principal problem of Surrealism.' It can only be through
expression (freed of the controls of reason) that one can pierce to the depths
of surreality. Yet, since one must look within for this surreality, it becomes
clear that it is a psychic, hidden "real" self, a Freudian "id." It is a synthesis
that exists within our olvn spirits.' Down in this inner psychic life of each one
of us we come to the human crucible itself which is an overindividual state.
Here is not only the man himself but mankind. By surrealist activity we get
"a key to go on opening indefinitely that box of never ending drawers which
is called man."s Here is the foundation upon which we must build our morals,
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
A. Breton, Second itlanzjerte du Surrhali~rne, p. 42, also pp. 26-27
*]bid., pp. 51-52.
Ibid., p. 35.
our art, our ways of thought, our life of actions, here exists not only the
surreality we seek but the sur-truth and the sur-beauty, the new reclassified
values, that are opened to our gaze. If the foundation is shifting sands instead
of rock all the values by which we judge the house we build will be different
from what we have held before.
In Le Surrkalisme et
and problems of surrealist activity as expressed in the plastic arts. In art
the realist attitude becomes academicism and naturalism. It is the art of
exact narration, of photographic external appearances, stemming from the
belief that artists "are only capable of reproducing more or less fortunately
the image of that which moves them. . . . The mistake lies in thinking that
the model can only be taken from the exterior world . . . The plastic work of
art, in order to respond to the undisputed necessity of thoroughly revising all
values, will either refer to a pz/r.e/~ interior model or cease to exist."'@ Such is
the full statement of the surrealist philosophy of art. All art other than surrealist
is an art of imitation of some thing which exists in the real world and
which does not need the work of art to insure its existence. A work of art
should not be a mere substitute for a thing, but should be the vehicle by which
the artist and spectator are brought before a sign which is the thing itself, that
is, up against the center of the world where thought and things meet. A work
of art derives its value not from its language symbols but from the surreal which
is behind them. The model for the work is in the psychic life of the artist
himself. A complete reversal of critical values is thus entailed. The value of a
work of art does not lie in biographical detail or formal elements, but in the
fact of its being an object in which the surreal comes to light. The surreal object
demands the surrealists activity if we are to be brought face to face with it.
The beauty of surrealist art will be "convulsive," it will produce in
the spectator "a state of physical disturbance characterized by the sensation
of a wind brushing across my forehead and capable of causing me really to
shiver.""
Surrealist artistic activity is no different from other surrealist activity
in its purpose. Its aim is to probe the depths of man, to find the Freudian
"id." This is the realm of the erotic and the marvelous which has occasionally
escaped into our daily life through dreams, and through actions
performed when we refuse the restrictions of rational reflection. Surrealist art
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
lo A. Breton, Le SurrPalirme et
" A. Breton, "Beauty will be Convulsive" CM, p. 37.
investigates this realm and sets up a pathway which will cotlnect it as directly
as possible (by a short circuit) with the world of daily life.
For Salvator Dali the whole ambition of the artist is to "materialize the
images of concrete irrationality." l2 He must record the interior model as
faithfully and as clearly as any realist or academic painter would copy his
exterior model. If the artist at the moment he paints his pictures does not
understand them it is not because they have no meaning, "on the contrary,
their meaning is so profound . . . that it escapes the most simple analysis of
logical intuition." l3 One cannot analyze the language of the unconscious.
Dali says:
"The subconscious has a symbolic language that is truly a universal language, for
it . . . speaks with the vocabulary of the great vital constants, sexual instinct, feeling of
death, physical notion of the enigma of space-these vital constants are universally
echoed in every human. To understand an uerthetic picture, training in appreciation
is necessary, cultural and intellectual preparation. For Surrealism the only requisite is
a receptive and intuitive human being.""
This passage, more clearly than any other, shows the great shift in values
presupposed by Surrealism, and declares the overindividual content of the
surreal.
He also points out another kind of surrealist activity to add to the
original one of psychic automatism of Andri. Breton. This he calls "paranoiaccritical
activity."'The images of reality are susceptible of false interpretations
in terms of some mental delusion. A picture of a horse may be seen as
that of a woman also, or even further as a lion. Which of these it may be, or
how many such images an individual may see depends upon his degree of
paranoiac capacity. The images of reality depend upon this capacity as well,'"
for reality may be as easily dissociated and put in question as illusion. As
Breton has said, "a tomato is a child's balloon" and in this relationship the
word "like" is "suppressed." Such a world is ego-centered, and however
much one may claim the objective and the subjective are telescoped, it is the
subjective element which is in the ascendancy. The rational is brought into
line with the irrational, the world of common sense with that of illusion.
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
l2 S. Dali, The Conquest of the Irrational, cf. pp. 12- 13.
l3 Idem.
l4 S. Dali. Address delivered at M. M. A., N. Y., 1934. J. Levy, Survealrsm, p. 7.
l5 S. Dali, The Conquest of the Irrational, pp. 17-18.
S. Dali, "The Stinking Ass," This Quavter, Sept. 1932, pp. 49-50.
When a work of art is a paranoiac phenomenon it is no longer the aesthetic
object of the older beauty but is purely a psychiatrical index of one's unconscious
activity.
The theoretical backgrounds of the philosophical position of Surrealism
lie in the principle of dialectic, and of surrealist activity in psychoanalytic
method. By an indiscriminate confusion of metaphysics, a dubious logical
method, and a radical psychological position, Surrealism becomes a structure
of serious and homicidal nonsense creating for itself a position of artificial
respectability.
The principle of dialectic is applied to synthesizing the opposition
between the real state and the dream state; it is a search for the surreality
in which the two are joined. But this is not the dialectic of Hegel. Reality
and rationality do not logically generate their antithesis. There is no necessary
movement from a given thesis to its opposite, and given both
2007-03-12
reading 从三角洲到三角洲
斯哥特·拉什
我想我与很多人一样,对珠江三角洲的第一印象来自于OMA和瑞姆·库哈斯(Rem Koolhaas)的《突变》,尤其是《大跃进》,该书的确为中国创造了某种西方人思考中国的范例,而在某些方面也折射了中国人如何看待中国。这原是库哈斯和上海建筑师马清运写在信封背面关于建筑设计的内容,不知为何,一年后就得以完成了。这是在《普通城市》之后进入《垃圾空间》的库哈斯。《垃圾空间》像是永远写不完。此文作于上世纪90年代后期,而我大概是在进入千年交接时读到了它的原稿。所以对我而言这就是中国,我猜对于其他很多人也是这样,尤其是那些熟悉文化理论、熟悉中西方艺术建筑的人。
我的第一次中国之行源于2002年圣诞节在卡姆登的爵士咖啡馆,我和瑞姆在餐后一起喝酒。瑞姆说我应该去上海,然后我们一起写一个2010年上海世博会的“剧本”。于是到了一月,我就飞了过去。瑞姆有一点惊讶我真按他说的来了。我确实来了,而且把我订的中档酒店改成了OMA建议的四季酒店——可以想象我那些在金史密斯学院财务部工作的同事们对这笔奢侈开支的惊骇程度。第二天早晨醒来时,我一点也不惊讶瑞姆还没有到。瑞姆已经礼貌地先给马清运打了电话,那时清运正和他的开发商妻子李守宁在一起,我们约好一起进早餐。我送给清运我当时的新书《信息批判》作为见面礼。作为回礼,他说,我们一起去海南吧,在海南我们可以与加拿大籍的华裔开发商安迪和当地政府一起做些工作。清运的意思是,我们赶下一班飞机去海南。而我这个古板的西方学者,已经有了一堆预约在身,这种自发冲动显然是不可能的。尽管我和清运当时彼此才认识了大概30秒钟,但是他通过这种突如其来的海南之旅的介绍方式,对我仍然是今日中国无限创造力的象征:机遇无处不在的中国,一切皆有可能的中国——这些也是艺术、建筑、媒体和某些商业的中国形象的核心。
最后,汉斯·乌尔里希·奥布里斯特(Hans Ulrich Obrist)和斯蒂斐诺·波里(Stefano Boeri)也加入了瑞姆、清运和我的行列,开始做2010年世博会所委任的协力工作。工作倒没有做出什么东西,但是,我在中国了,而且我对中国开始上瘾了。我至今超过20年的职业,就是从事关于资本主义的未来以及它如何转变全球文化的书籍写作。而中国显然位于所有的这些问题的前沿。整整近四年时间中,我学习着中文,并且涉及多个中国项目。和很多人一样,我被眼前的这些非凡的能量、速度和可能性所吸引。而珠江三角洲,或者说珠三角神话,正是这种吸引的核心。
英国皇家艺术学会(RSA)2006年5月的来访是别有意义的。如今,最令人关注的是这些创造力和高速增长所带来的未必喜人的后果:生态学和社会学的后果。那时,我开始接触到《读书》小组的工作,他们是中国的新左派,由汪晖、黄平、崔之元和王晓明等人组成。此次前来的英国皇家艺术学会小组本身是“艺术与生态”(Arts & Ecology)小组,其考察目标是中国二十七年以来的能量、速度、可能性,以及飞速发展所带来的副作用。“艺术与生态”和《读书》小组,都代表着对邓小平单纯关注发展和开放市场的不同声音。艺术、建筑、城市和理论如何介入这种情况?于是我飞到香港机场,然后坐巴士去和其他在广州的英国皇家艺术学会的中英专家们会合。我被从香港到大陆的巴士令人难以置信的拥挤和艰难惊呆了。巴士上基本都是到香港上班的广东人,他们干香港人不愿意干的活。这些巴士开得无比缓慢,而在过关时则麻烦得要命。而在边界的另一头,你几乎不可能再找到你的那辆巴士。
进入深圳,它比《大跃进》让我期待的更有吸引力,看上去也更富裕。那里有很多真正的消费文化型大楼,正像是上世纪80年代后期在美国各大城市中泛滥的后现代大杂烩。而去广州的旅途则非常缓慢,而且广州本身比我想象的要单调很多,也全然不是我想象的那么富裕。这个城市曾经在19世纪上半叶诞生过大量商人,他们组织起来的行会曾经发展出一套和国家政府相对独立的资本主义,而现在它看上去似乎在衰退。张巍的维他命艺术空间是这次活动的中方主办方,也是一个完美的世界级艺术空间。但它也是广州唯一这种类型的艺术空间。这个曾经产生过侯瀚如和一个非常成功的三年展的城市,相对于文化过度集中的北京和上海,就像是一个真空。有人曾提醒我,广州在珠江三角洲向内推进约
中国人存钱;而伦敦人——我在伦敦住了将近十年——花钱。泰晤士河三角洲历史上主要是一个货物流入的地方,有工业品也有消费品。如今,原料通过南安普敦或者其他港口运输,很少有货物经过泰晤士河。泰晤士河与伦敦城和金丝雀码头相接,在那里如今有约60万个金融部门的工作取代了码头工人的工作。泰晤士河如今以服务业为主,包括金融业以及现在的旅游业,包括由博物馆带动的泰晤士河南岸的旅游业——从南岸中心到设计博物馆和塔桥。有人猜想,珠江三角洲未来是否可依靠金融业和旅游业,是否将会有一个连接香港和广州的“南中国”?这是香港地图署的古儒郎(Laurent Gutierrez)和林海华(Valerie Portefaix)的梦想。看到广东南沙的开发规划,你也许会认同他们的想法,在那里香港开发商霍英东和建筑师刘珩正在建造一个新城——该城建成后将会有高尔夫俱乐部、游艇和奢侈的酒店设施。或者珠江三角洲面临的未来会更像新奥尔良和密西西比河三角洲。而十九世纪中叶鸦片战争的背景始终还是萦绕在我们心头。
那次去广州,我们整整一周中都在巴士上和我们中英混杂的队员一起,在广东全省各处探访。这次活动的高潮,也许就是我们对南岭的大农村/小城镇的访问。南岭在广东省的东北部,离湖南省的边界不远。在南岭附近有一个被称为韶关的地方,开发商陈旭军正在那里开发一个生态旅游基地。这里已经是张巍和陈旭军设立的让艺术家们居住和交流的地点。在这个剧场前的空地,我们进行了此次英国皇家艺术学会之旅的唯一一次讨论。在这里,陈旭军热情地讲述了他正在做的事情,“精神”这个词在他的语言中反复出现,我锁定了这个词。我们小组的复旦教授潘天舒说,是的,城市里的人们需要来这里获取“治疗性”价值。我扮了个鬼脸说:“治疗性!!”这就是物质与功利主义的极限所在。恰恰这些精神上的立足点大多是自相矛盾的。在陈旭军看来,中国在精神上需要达到的,是马克斯·韦伯(Max Weber)的著作中所谈及的“世俗精神”,是建立在中国的宗教和儒家伦理上的。这就是“关系性”,是弗朗索瓦·于连(Fran?ois Jullien)在他关于中国的大作中所论述到的:关系比个体更早出现。这不是先验的,而是内在精神的,这种关系性,是两千年以来教条主义者们努力斗争的对象,是文化大革命几乎成功摧毁了的东西。今天中国的机械唯理性是这种精神的另一种摧毁性因素。另一种暗流也危如累卵——它不同于三角洲来往的货物流,但若没有它,货物流就无以为继。这种暗流的关系媒介就是“道”。这也是“交流”的广泛本性之所在,和瓦尔特?本雅明(Walter Benjamin)所谓的“共享”。“交流”在这个脉络里是强有力的和形而上的。“交流”对本雅明来说就是“告知”(Mitteilen),是分享,是对非物质的、精神实质的分享。
而正是这个因素需要在中国的发展中回归到与社会的和自然的结构关系中——精神不是外部的,而是社会和自然的组成部分及浓缩。在这里我们可以获得社会和生态的可持续性。然而这也需要——也许是辩证对立——与极其唯物的个人主义共存,这不是功利主义的资本积累,而是库哈斯和马清运所借助的“差异性、创造力和可能性”。这种表面上永远开放的关于差异性的唯物主义,将真正的力量赋予了像刘珩、姜珺和上海同济城市规划设计研究院的匡晓明等这些城市领域里更年轻的人们。这是无限机遇的理念。珠三角的问题,正如我们西方的问题一样,是要达到这样的“世俗精神”和“关系性”,这对生态学、社会学、经济学和地缘政治学的可持续性都是必要的。这也是把它和它的对立体——拥有创造力、可能性和差异性的唯物主义——放在一起。它总是要和这个矛盾共存。因此正是这种货物、想法和意义的流动和变通,在中国,在西方,让我们从三角洲到三角洲。
2007-03-12
reading 中西哲学比较中的几个关键问题
——俞宣孟与于连的对话 |
【作者】孙景强 |
【内容提要】 |
【关键词】 超越性|本体论|可比性|迂回与探根寻源|哲学观念的更新 |
〔作者按〕上海社会科学院哲学所 2005 年 10 月 29 至 30 日,上海社会科学院哲学研究所与华东师范大学哲学系共同举办的中西哲学比较研究国际研讨会在浙江绍兴举行。来自国内外的学者 40 余人就有关中西哲学比较问题进行了讨论,气氛甚洽,交流不仅在会议上,而且在饭后茶余。上海社会科学院哲学所俞宣孟教授与应邀参加本次会议的巴黎第七大学 F. 于连( Francois Jullien ) F. 于连( Francois Jullien , 1951 年—):法国当代哲学家、汉学家,现任巴黎第七大学教授,葛兰言研究中心主任,曾任国际哲学学院院长。多年来致力于通过中西文化比较重新思考中国及西方文化传统。著有《鲁迅,写作与革命》、《隐喻的价值——中国传统中的诗解释的原始范畴》、《过程和创造——中国文人思想导论》、《平淡颂——从中国思想和美学出发》、《物势——中国有效性的历史》、《内在之象—— < 易经 > 的哲学阅读》、《中庸》、《迂回与进入——中国和希腊意义策略》、《道德奠基——孟子与启蒙哲学家的对话》、《效率论》、《圣人无意——或哲学的他者》、《裸体或真理的本质》、《论时间——一种生活哲学的要素》、《大象无形》,还有与 T. 马尔谢斯合作写的《从外部思考》等。其中已经译成中文的三部著作是:《圣人无意——或哲学的他者》、《迂回与进入——中国和希腊意义策略》、《道德奠基——孟子与启蒙哲学家的对话》。教授在会议间隙的多次谈话就富有学术意义。由于他们的谈话有某种共同理解的背景,所以一些话题往往点到即止,并不展开。因而笔者愿以己之所闻,并参照他们的著作作一评论,发表出来以飨同仁。 中西哲学比较中的几个关键问题 一、 主语缺失的“形而上”是 如何表达“超越性”的 俞教授向会议提交的论文中对于《周易·系辞》(上传)“形而上者谓之道,形而下者谓之器”一句作了解释,他认为,这个句子是关于如何读“易”的,这里的“形”就是“卦”( hexagram ),“上”字当作动词,因此,“形而上”是指人自己从卦象超越出去,这样才能达到得“道”的境界。于连教授读后,对于这个说法表示赞赏。他还补充说,因为有这个“而”字,就有……(他张开双臂向下作操物状升起在胸前)……上升的意思。俞教授说,“者”字在此,不是指“形而上”的东西,而是复指词,指“形而上”这个过程。但是,于连要求知道把“形”说成“卦”的理由。俞教授说,首先,这句话出于《周易·系辞》,那是释《易经》的,在《易经》中,“卦”又称为“卦象”、“象”,“象”和“形”在这里是同等性质的东西,故有“在天成象,在地成形”之说;其次,同样是关于读易方法的王弼主张,“得象而忘言”,“得意而忘象”(见《周易略例·明象》),“忘象”就是忘卦,但是人只能有意记住某些东西,却不能有意忘掉什么东西,可见这里的“忘”字是人主动放弃对象的执着,是指人自己生存状态的转换。更主要的是,“形而上”指人自己状态的转换,这符合传统中国哲学一贯的精神,即,注重人自身的修养,得“道”的境界是需要人自己去追求的,“道”并不是脱离了人生而“客观”存在的东西。谈到这里,于连教授说,看来中西哲学的不同还与语法相关。中文句子可以没有主语,这就给俞教授那样的解释留了余地。俞教授补充说,黑格尔也注意到了汉语的这个特点,他指出汉语中没有被动语态,这与没有主语是相关的。但是黑格尔意在说明,中文是一种含糊的语言,不利形成哲学概念。依据俞教授论文中讲的,柏拉图的理念论虽然是西方超越观念的源头,但是在一些英文版本的柏拉图著作索引中都没有列出 Transcendence 这个词,因此可能柏拉图本人没有使用过这个词,于连教授纠正说,柏拉图的《理想国》第六章末尾应当提到这个词。从上面的谈话中,我们明显能够看出“形而上者谓之道,形而下者谓之器”这句话是缺乏主语的,即我们看不到“形而上”主语是谁,也就是说,当谈到“超越”的时候,我们不知道谁在“超越”以及“超越”的意义何在。然而,我们也并不因为这句话欠缺主语就阻碍对这句话的理解。事实上,古代汉语缺乏主语这种语法现象,并不表明中国思想不指示哲学意义,相反,却显示了中国特有的哲学意义,这种哲学意义不像西方传统哲学家那样追求特定的结论性的东西,而在于呈现“彼-我”相一致的协调或适应状态;中国哲学不存在刻意追求一种客观的“道”,“道”在交流的过程中为人所体验(即,人自我调整后状态的体验),而对于具有文本阅读传统的中国来说,这个未被言明的主语其实就是读者。“形而上者”的“者”,通过复指,是要读者体验“形而上”时的情形。于连教授还提出:语法对哲学形态的形成起到了非常重要的作用。在古希腊语和拉丁语出现书写文字的时候,我们就已经发现具有完整意义上的语法结构了(主谓结构);而在中国古代却并未出现像西方语言里那样严谨的语法结构,只是到了现代中国,汉语语法才依傍着西方语言诞生。虽然“形而上”没有标明主体,但是也只有我们大家在阅读文本和体悟文本中的哲学意义的时候才能进行超越活动,而这里所说的“超越”也只能是在意识中的一种领悟性“超越”。不存在主语,却时刻要求主语存在,只有不忘记自我的体悟才能理解“道”;在希腊和罗马哲学语言中一个句子存在主语却忘掉了主体与客体的适应,这在某种意义上也成就了西方出现主体去主动逻辑地构建一种客观的概念体系。俞教授进一步说,由于汉字是一种象形文字,理解一个词的意义往往通过对应一个具体的“实”来理解,也就是说词的意义通过“实”来表达,即名副其实。当柏拉图说,动词一开始也只是描述一个动作的名称,这说明西方人最初也是名实相符的,只是在本体论中,才出现“名不副实”的现象,特别是在柏拉图哲学那里,一个词的意义最终要通过词与词之间的关系来建立,这也从另一个方面解释了:中国古代哲学并未出现像西方传统哲学那样以本体论为主要形态的形而上学。从“形而上者谓之道”这句话中我们看到,中国哲学中也有“超越”的特征,然而中国哲学所追求的“超越”只是基于“形”的一种对“道”的体悟,它仍然是人自己的体悟,并不是对不可感的东西的概念性的思考。正是在这个意义上,我们说,构建中国自己的哲学史要依据中国哲学中的特质、而不是依据西方哲学传统,更没有在中国哲学中追求或建立一种概念发展史的必要。 二、 本体论问题在中西哲学 比较中的意义在于连教授向会议作的主题报告中,他谈到自己与福柯在一个问题上的不同观点。他介绍说,福柯不承认西方传统有什么特点可言,那是因为福柯站在西方传统的内部,看到西方传统还在向各个方向发展。但是,如果站到西方传统的外部,譬如从中国传统的背景去看,那么,西方传统的特点就会凸现出来。但是,于连对于当场被提问:相对于中国哲学的西方哲学传统的特点是什么,却没有给出明确的回答。在会见的交谈中,俞教授又提起这个话题,并且明确指出,标志西方哲学传统特点的是本体论( ontology )。对此,于连表示赞同。而且,他明确表示中国哲学中不存在本体论,本体论与西方语言的系词 Etre ( Being )有关,是纯粹概念的体系。俞教授一向重视对本体论的研究。他认为,肇始于柏拉图的本体论是西方理性主义哲学的核心,而理性主义则代表了西方传统哲学的主流。这不仅表现在怀特海等人所说的,一部西方哲学史就是柏拉图哲学的注释,而且,还表现在,现代西方哲学对于传统哲学的反叛主要也是针对着本体论的。在中西哲学比较研究中,抓住本体论就是抓住了比较对象的主要特征。中国哲学中不存在本体论,二者以此形成了鲜明的对照。那么本体论具有哪些特点呢?俞教授认为,本体论是通过逻辑概念相互结合形成的超验的普遍原理体系。首先,本体论构建了一个超验领域,也就是说一个超越感觉的领域,只有理性才能把握,这就是二元论;其次,本体论的语言使用的是一种超越时空逻辑范畴,这种逻辑范畴语言不同于日常语言的地方就在于它们的意义不是通过指示“实”来获得的,而是通过它们的相互关系建立起来的;再次,本体论是以最普遍的形式表达事物本质的第一原理。所谓宇宙规则、绝对真理就是在这个意义上讲的;最后,俞教授还指出西方哲学重在人们通过学习达到一种逻辑思维训练。于连教授在他的著作中也明确表示过,中国哲学中并没有建立起一座如我们在西方传统中看到的本体论大厦于连:《圣人无意》,闫素伟译,商务印书馆, 2004 年,第 3 页。于连教授还深入论述过西方本体论这种哲学和语言的关系。他说:“西方传统意义上的 Etre ,在古典中文中找不到相对等的概念。因为正如本弗尼斯特告诉我们的, Etre 的话语,即‘本体论',只是说明在某些希腊的语义根源和语法范畴中意谓的东西也是西方哲学中的逻各斯传统,也就是语言学传统所意味的东西。”杜小真:《远去与归来——希腊与中国的对话》,中国人民大学出版社, 2004 年,第 52 页。在于连教授看来,本体论的特点就在于以其逻辑规定的语言追求普遍(即终点),而哲学家通过‘抽象-建构'来设定普遍性原理同上,第 51 页。。他还认为,西方哲学离开智慧,走得太远了,因而失去了理性应有的创造力,他研究中国哲学就是要从一种异质的哲学中获取启发,为理性打开一扇门,恢复理性应有的创造力。 三、 哲学观念的更新 虽然于连教授不愿意直接指明中国哲学的传统是什么,但是在他的谈话里还是能够体现出,中国哲学更多强调的是智慧而不是西方传统意义上的本体论哲学。于连教授认为,“中国没有建立起本体论的大厦,智慧是‘道’。”于连:《圣人无意》,闫素伟译,商务印书馆, 2004 年,第 3 页。那么这样的智慧有什么特点呢?于连教授说:这种智慧之学并没有像西方哲学那样追求普遍性的原理,而是一种自然的内在性流露,它保持了“中”的开放姿态,而不是像西方传统哲学那样走上了一个极端的寻求普遍原理的不归之路。智慧的语言可以说是从内在性流露出来的;智慧通过连续流动而起作用,进而达到一种穿越;“智慧的圣人‘无意’,比如儒家的‘中’。道家的‘虚空’,也就是避免固定在某一局部之中,而在‘可能性’中追求‘变化’。”《远去与归来——希腊与中国的对话 》,第 51 页。但是,这并不意味着中国没有哲学。于连教授在一本谈话录中曾说过:“中国思想在过去的发展过程中,是哲学地形成的:规定自己的术语,明确辩论的模式等等。其实,我认为中国人知道哲学,中国有哲学的可能性,但又是‘反哲学’的。……而且,中国古代也有争论(辩)的传统,比如墨家在这条道路上就走得很远。但是,许多伟大的中国思想家,比如庄子、孟子,他们怀疑‘辩驳的陷阱’。”所以,他说中国哲学具有自己特有的思想和立足策略。于连教授一方面不否认中国有自己的哲学,另一方面,又说“中国有哲学的可能”。这似乎表明,他对于缺少“论辩”的东西是否是哲学还有疑虑。俞教授主张,应当突破西方传统的哲学观念,并认为,我们现在正处在一个哲学观念更新的时代。比较起来,康德和黑格尔那样对于哲学有极大贡献的哲学家都没有面临过哲学观念更新的任务,因为他们仍然在西方哲学传统之中。这种突破的重要表现之一就是:我们不应该把哲学仅仅看成是理论。实际活动是理论的根据,它本身也是哲学的。对此,于连教授感到疑问,他问,一切民族都有活动,那么是否他们都有哲学呢?俞教授的回答是,哲学作为学说,当然要有所说,说不限于理论性的说。把对于实际生存活动的方式的反思说出来就是哲学。反思的方式也有不同,西方哲学的反思方式是“看”, idea |